Cell Wall (Plant, Fungal, Bacterial)- Structure and Functions

The cell wall is a rigid and protective layer that surrounds the plasma membrane of some cells. It is not a living structure, but it is produced by the living protoplast (the living part of the cell) inside the cell. The cell wall provides mechanical support and shape to the cell, and also serves as a barrier against external threats.

The cell wall is not present in animal cells, but it is found in most plant cells, fungi, bacteria, algae, and some archaea. The cell wall differs in composition and structure depending on the type of organism. For example:

• In plant cells, the cell wall is mainly composed of cellulose, a polysaccharide made of glucose units. Cellulose forms long and strong fibers that give the cell wall its strength and flexibility. The cell wall also contains other polysaccharides, such as hemicellulose and pectin, and some proteins.
• In fungi, the cell wall is mainly composed of chitin, a polysaccharide made of N-acetylglucosamine units. Chitin forms rigid and tough fibers that protect the fungal cell from damage. The cell wall also contains other polysaccharides, such as glucans, and some proteins.
• In bacteria, the cell wall is mainly composed of peptidoglycan, a complex molecule made of sugar chains cross-linked by peptide bonds. Peptidoglycan forms a mesh-like layer that gives the bacterial cell its shape and prevents it from bursting due to osmotic pressure. The cell wall also contains other molecules, such as lipids and proteins.

The cell wall has many important functions in a cell, such as:

• Providing support and structure to the cell and the whole organism
• Withstanding turgor pressure (the internal pressure caused by water inside the cell)
• Regulating cell growth and division
• Regulating the diffusion of substances into and out of the cell
• Communicating with other cells through pores or channels
• Protecting the cell from pathogens, toxins, and environmental stress
• Storing carbohydrates for energy or growth

The cell wall is a dynamic structure that can change its composition and thickness according to the needs of the cell. For example, some plant cells can form a secondary cell wall inside the primary cell wall to increase their strength and rigidity. Some bacteria can modify their cell wall to resist antibiotics or evade immune system recognition.

The cell wall is one of the most distinctive features of non-animal cells. It plays a vital role in maintaining the integrity and function of the cell and the organism. In this article, we will explore the structure and functions of the cell wall in plants, fungi, and bacteria in more detail.

The cell wall is a rigid and protective layer around the plasma membrane which provides mechanical support to the cell. It is a non-living structure that is formed by the living protoplast. Animal cells do not have a cell wall. They are present in most plant cells, fungi, bacteria, algae, and some archaea. The cell wall is composed of different types of polysaccharides and proteins depending on the type of organism.

Plant Cell Wall

The plant cell wall is multi-layered and consists of up to three sections: middle lamella, primary cell wall, and secondary cell wall. The middle lamella is the outermost layer that contains pectins, which help to bind adjacent cells together. The primary cell wall is the main layer that is formed between the middle lamella and the plasma membrane in growing plant cells. It is mainly composed of cellulose microfibrils embedded in a matrix of hemicellulose and pectin polysaccharides. The primary cell wall provides strength and flexibility to the cell and allows for cell growth. The secondary cell wall is an additional layer that is formed between the primary cell wall and the plasma membrane in some plant cells after they stop growing. It is thicker and more rigid than the primary cell wall and contains more cellulose and lignin, which provide extra support and water conductivity to the cell.

Fungal Cell Wall

The fungal cell wall is a matrix of three main components: chitin, glucans, and proteins. Chitin is a polymer of N-acetylglucosamine that forms unbranched chains linked by beta-1,4 bonds. It is synthesized and extruded at the plasma membrane and provides structural support to the cell wall. Glucans are polymers of glucose that function to cross-link chitin chains. They can be either beta-glucans or alpha-glucans depending on the type of bonds between glucose molecules. Beta-glucans provide rigidity to the cell wall while alpha-glucans act as part of the matrix. Proteins are enzymes or structural proteins that are involved in cell wall synthesis or lysis. Most of the structural proteins are glycosylated with mannose and are called mannoproteins or mannans.

Bacterial Cell Wall

Bacterial cell walls are made of peptidoglycan, which is a complex molecule composed of polysaccharide chains cross-linked by peptides containing D-amino acids. The polysaccharide chains consist of alternating units of N-acetylglucosamine and N-acetylmuramic acid, with the peptide chain attached to the N-acetylmuramic acid unit. The peptide chains can form bridges between adjacent polysaccharide chains, creating a mesh-like structure that surrounds the entire cell. The structure and thickness of the peptidoglycan layer vary among different types of bacteria. Gram-positive bacteria have a thick peptidoglycan layer that also contains teichoic acids, which are polymers of glycerol or ribitol phosphate with various sugars and amino acids attached. Gram-negative bacteria have a thin peptidoglycan layer that is sandwiched between an inner plasma membrane and an outer membrane that contains lipopolysaccharide (LPS), which is a complex molecule composed of lipid A, core polysaccharide, and O antigen.

The plant cell wall is a complex structure that consists of three distinct layers: the middle lamella, the primary cell wall, and the secondary cell wall. Each layer has a different composition, function, and development.

Middle lamella: This is the outermost layer of the cell wall that connects adjacent plant cells. It is composed mainly of pectins, which are polysaccharides that form a gel-like matrix. Pectins help to glue the cells together and provide flexibility to the tissue. The middle lamella also contains some proteins and calcium ions that cross-link the pectins and strengthen the bond between cells.

Primary cell wall: This is the layer that is formed next to the plasma membrane during cell growth and division. It is composed mainly of cellulose, which are long chains of glucose molecules that form microfibrils. These microfibrils are embedded in a matrix of hemicelluloses and pectins, which are branched polysaccharides that provide elasticity and hydration to the wall. The primary cell wall also contains some proteins, such as expansins and extensins, that regulate its growth and structure. The primary cell wall is thin and flexible, allowing the cell to expand and change shape.

Secondary cell wall: This is the layer that is formed inside the primary cell wall after the cell has stopped growing. It is composed mainly of cellulose and lignin, which are complex polymers that provide rigidity and strength to the wall. Lignin also makes the wall waterproof and resistant to degradation by enzymes and microbes. The secondary cell wall also contains some hemicelluloses and proteins, such as peroxidases and laccases, that catalyze the formation of lignin. The secondary cell wall is thick and rigid, limiting the cell`s expansion and shape.

The plant cell wall plays an important role in maintaining the shape, structure, and function of plant cells. It also protects the cell from environmental stresses, such as pathogens, drought, and mechanical damage. The plant cell wall also mediates cell-cell communication through plasmodesmata, which are channels that connect the cytoplasm of adjacent cells. Through these channels, molecules and signals can be exchanged between cells, coordinating their activities and responses.

Fungi are eukaryotic organisms that have cell walls made of different components than plants and bacteria. The main structural component of fungal cell walls is chitin, a polysaccharide that consists of long chains of N-acetylglucosamine (NAG) units linked by β-(1,4) bonds. Chitin is also found in the exoskeletons of arthropods, such as insects and crustaceans. Chitin provides strength and rigidity to the cell wall, as well as resistance to environmental stress and pathogens.

In addition to chitin, fungal cell walls also contain glucans, which are glucose polymers that cross-link chitin chains and form a network. There are two types of glucans in fungal cell walls: β-glucans and α-glucans. β-glucans are composed of glucose units linked by β-(1,3) or β-(1,6) bonds and provide structural support and elasticity to the cell wall. α-glucans are composed of glucose units linked by α-(1,3) or α-(1,4) bonds and function as part of the matrix that fills the spaces between chitin and β-glucans.

Another important component of fungal cell walls is proteins, which are either embedded in the glucan-chitin network or attached to the surface of the cell wall. Some of these proteins are enzymes that are involved in the synthesis and degradation of the cell wall components. Other proteins are structural proteins that contribute to the shape and stability of the cell wall. Many of these proteins are glycosylated, meaning that they have sugar molecules attached to them. These sugar molecules are mostly mannose, a type of hexose sugar. Therefore, these proteins are called mannoproteins or mannans.

The composition and structure of fungal cell walls vary depending on the type and species of fungi, as well as the environmental conditions and developmental stages. For example, some fungi have a thin layer of chitin on the outer surface of their cell wall, while others have a thick layer. Some fungi have more β-glucans than α-glucans, while others have more α-glucans than β-glucans. Some fungi have more mannoproteins than others, and some have different types of mannoproteins with different functions.

The fungal cell wall has several important functions for the survival and growth of fungi. Some of these functions are:

• Protection: The cell wall protects the fungal cell from physical damage, dehydration, osmotic stress, UV radiation, and chemical agents. It also prevents the entry of harmful substances and pathogens into the cell.
• Support: The cell wall provides mechanical strength and support to the fungal cell. It also determines the shape and size of the cell and influences its polarity and orientation.
• Growth: The cell wall regulates the growth and division of the fungal cell by controlling the expansion and contraction of the plasma membrane. It also allows for morphological changes and differentiation during development.
• Communication: The cell wall mediates the communication between fungal cells and their environment. It senses external signals and transmits them to the inside of the cell. It also secretes molecules that interact with other cells or organisms.
• Storage: The cell wall stores carbohydrates, such as chitin and glucans, for use in energy production or biosynthesis.

Bacteria are prokaryotic cells that have a cell wall made of a complex molecule called peptidoglycan. Peptidoglycan is composed of long chains of alternating sugar molecules, N-acetylglucosamine (NAG) and N-acetylmuramic acid (NAM), that are cross-linked by short peptides. Peptidoglycan provides strength and rigidity to the bacterial cell wall and protects it from osmotic lysis.

Bacteria can be classified into two major groups based on the structure and composition of their cell wall: gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. This classification is based on the Gram stain, a technique that uses different dyes to stain the cell wall of bacteria.

Gram-positive bacteria have a thick layer of peptidoglycan (20-80 nm) that forms the main component of their cell wall. They also have teichoic acids, which are polymers of glycerol or ribitol phosphate attached to sugars or amino acids, that extend from the peptidoglycan layer. Teichoic acids help to maintain the structure of the cell wall, regulate its growth and division, and bind to metal ions. Gram-positive bacteria stain purple with the Gram stain because they retain the primary dye (crystal violet) in their thick peptidoglycan layer.

Gram-negative bacteria have a thin layer of peptidoglycan (2-7 nm) that is sandwiched between two membranes: the inner (plasma) membrane and the outer membrane. The outer membrane contains lipopolysaccharides (LPS), which are complex molecules consisting of a lipid (lipid A) and a polysaccharide (O antigen and core polysaccharide). LPS acts as an endotoxin that triggers an immune response in animals. It also provides a barrier against antibiotics, enzymes, and other harmful substances. Gram-negative bacteria stain pink with the Gram stain because they lose the primary dye (crystal violet) and take up the secondary dye (safranin) in their thin peptidoglycan layer.

The difference between gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria is important for their identification, classification, and treatment. Some examples of gram-positive bacteria are Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Bacillus, and Clostridium. Some examples of gram-negative bacteria are Escherichia, Salmonella, Shigella, and Pseudomonas.

The cell wall has many important functions in a cell, such as:

• Support: The cell wall provides mechanical strength and support. It also controls the direction of cell growth. For example, in plants, the orientation of cellulose microfibrils determines the axis of cell elongation. In fungi, the cell wall helps to maintain the shape and structure of hyphae and fruiting bodies.
• Withstand turgor pressure: Turgor pressure is the force exerted against the cell wall as the contents of the cell push the plasma membrane against the cell wall. This pressure helps a plant to remain rigid and erect, but can also cause a cell to rupture. The cell wall resists this pressure and prevents the cell from bursting. For example, in bacteria, the peptidoglycan layer prevents osmotic lysis when the cell is exposed to a hypotonic environment.
• Regulate growth: The cell wall sends signals for the cell to enter the cell cycle in order to divide and grow. The cell wall also regulates the rate and direction of growth by modifying its structure and composition. For example, in plants, the primary cell wall is loosened by enzymes and expansins to allow for cell expansion, while the secondary cell wall is thickened and lignified to limit further growth. In fungi, the cell wall is remodeled by chitin synthases and chitinases to allow for branching and extension of hyphae.
• Regulate diffusion: The cell wall is porous allowing some substances, including proteins, to pass into the cell while keeping other substances out. The cell wall also acts as a selective barrier that controls the transport of molecules across the plasma membrane. For example, in plants, the cell wall regulates the uptake of water and minerals by adjusting its permeability and charge. In bacteria, the cell wall modulates the activity of porins and transporters that mediate nutrient acquisition and secretion.
• Communication: Cells communicate with one another via plasmodesmata (pores or channels between plant cell walls that allow molecules and communication signals to pass between individual plant cells) or pili (hair-like structures on bacterial cell walls that facilitate attachment and exchange of genetic material). The cell wall also mediates interactions with other cells and organisms by displaying surface molecules that act as recognition signals or adhesion factors. For example, in plants, the cell wall contains receptors and ligands that trigger defense responses against pathogens or herbivores. In fungi, the cell wall contains lectins and hydrophobins that bind to host cells or substrates.
• Protection: The cell wall provides a barrier to protect against plant viruses and other pathogens. It also helps to prevent water loss and mechanical damage. For example, in plants, the cell wall contains antimicrobial compounds and structural proteins that confer resistance to infection or injury. In bacteria, the cell wall contains lipopolysaccharides and teichoic acids that elicit immune responses or modulate host-pathogen interactions.
• Storage: The cell wall stores carbohydrates for use in plant growth, especially in seeds. The cell wall also serves as a reservoir of enzymes and metabolites that can be released or activated when needed. For example, in plants, the cell wall contains starch granules and oil bodies that provide energy and carbon sources for germination or development. In fungi, the cell wall contains melanin and ergosterol that protect against UV radiation or oxidative stress.

We are Compiling this Section. Thanks for your understanding.